因特网的起源可以追溯到20世纪90年代初期。 The Internet’s origins date back to the early 1990s.

因特网（Internet）的起源可追溯到它的前身（）

A.ARPANET

B.DECnet

C.NSFNET

D.Ethernet

因特网最早起源于()。

A.二次大战中

B.60年代末

C.80年代中期

D.90年代初期

A.ARPANET

B.DECnet

C.NSFNET

D.Ethernet

The Internet and TV

因特网与电视

??Many people are watching spellbound^[1]as the Internet grows exponentially. What they often do not realize is that the Internet is not only a fascinating new interaction medium, but that it will completely dominate our society.

??Previous generations knew books, newspapers, telephones and televisions. The first three were essential aids to life, two text-based, the third speech-based. Anyone who was denied access to them was disadvantaged in our society. The picture-based medium, television, helped to bring the world closer to home. But it condemned the viewer to passivity and has been more a hindrance than a help in aiding individuals to develop new skills and capabilities.

??The Internet will unite all the traditional media and push them further. Most significantly, this is the first time that pictures will be used interactively for information, communication and development of skills. Even today, everyone who uses the web is able to catch a glimpse of the potential of the medium in this direction.

??Our children will grow into a web generation. They won't log onto the Internet occasionally, but will be online all the time. Fortunately they will be significantly more active than the TV-dominated baby boom generation^[2]. Those who are denied access to the Internet completely or partially will be enormously disadvantaged. They will be lost in our digital society.

??Obviously access will not be as it is today: slow, unstructured, available only through the computer. We will have intelligent tools for tapping undreamt-of possibilities. We can glimpse the beginning of these developments in many places. Shopping over the Internet of the future will be the obvious thing to do, regardless of whether the goods are ultimately delivered or fetched in person. Both the time-short and time-rich^[3]will love using the web in this way.

??Regardless of whether you agree with our views, you should read on. It is important for every e-tailing and electronic-shopping strategy to understand in detail what dramatic changes the Internet will undergo in the next few years.

??

Anytime, Anywhere Access

??Today "'interface" devices for the electronic world fall into three categories: telephone, PC and television. The telephone and the television were network-orientated devices from the beginning. They had a specific use: speech-based one-to-one communication on the one hand and picture-and-sound-based broadcasts on the other. The PC was initially a stand- alone calculating machine which was gradually networked and became a communication unit. It has been quite a long evolution. Douglas Englebart, the often unacknowledged forefather of the modern PC, not only invented the mouse, but as long ago as 1964 in his Stanford Research Institute, was propagating networking in its primitive forms. His early efforts were precursors of what we now call "hyperlinks" on the Internet.?Interestingly even Apple^[4]founder, Steve Jobs, who copied much from Englebart and marketed it, did not take this aspect of communication between PCs very seriously at first.

??With digitalization (still only partially achieved with the telephone and the television), the three categories, telephone, PC, and TV will merge. This does not mean that multifunctional devices will dominate the market place, although these are clearly possible. After all, a medium like the radio has not disappeared although the radio function has long been integrated into TV sets. For most of today' s radio listeners TV sets are inappropriate. Digitalization of all devices does mean, however, that new applications and functional extensions will be possible. Overall we see three far-reaching changes for Internet access and electronic shopping:

??·the comeback of the television;

??·an increase in mobile devices; and

??·the growth of 'easy use' equipment.

??Surrounding these elements of tomorrow's consumer infrastructure are a number of burning questions, e. g. who will provide the operating system which allows them to function？ And who will provide the Internet access to them？ Fortunately as an e-tailer you can wait and see.

??

The comeback of television

??A debate has been going on for a long time about whether the PC or the television will win as a preferred method of access to the Internet.

??A few years ago, a Japanese delegation visiting Silicon Valley^[5]asked Regis McKenna: "Which will win—the TV set or the PC？". "The microwave oven" was his stunning reply. We love it, because it not only underlines the fruitlessness of the discussion, but emphasises that—thanks to Moore's law^[6]—we will see many more unconventional Internet access devices. We discuss these in more detail below.

??Still, television deserves some special attention. With digitalization, it is on a technological collision course with the PC and many people believe that this means that one device will have to go. A long and pointless discussion has begun about whether the greater functionality of the PC or the wider distribution, better graphics and greater ease of operation of the TV set will win through. Combination units are already on the market. So far they have not met with much success.

??The reason is simple, the "egg-laying wool-producing milk-providing pig" is impractical. In the foreseeable future there will be a device with a keyboard which primarily specialises in communicating and processing information and which will be compact to a degree or even portable—let's call this a PC. There will be another device that is big, though no longer clumsy looking, that specialises in high-resolution graphics and films—let's simply call this a television. This television can have an infrared keyboard connected to it but usually it will be controlled with its simpler remote-control unit. You will be able to interchange the two units to a certain degree, but the so-called 'look and feel' is clearly optimised to one type of application.

??The critical fact is. television is becoming suitable for the Internet. This trend cannot be stopped. Most new and some proven Internet content is strongly picture-based and therefore particularly suited to television. Accessing it will not require a keyboard just as videotext or programme guides do not. The ultimate breakthrough for TV as an Internet device will come with broadband connections. Interactive TV will embrace Internet content as an add-on to TV programmes.

??For a long time it has been thought that video on demand (i. e. downloading films for payment), will be interactive TV's "killer application", i.e. the decisive buying-incentive for interactive television. Now it is clear that many people think that they would like video on demand but hardly anyone would pay for such a service at today's prices. Thus the so- called "full service networks' (FSN), based on this (such as Time-Warner's^[7]notorious attempt in Orlando) have all failed so far. The good news was that Time-Warner's FSN worked; the bad news was that it cost the company about ＄12, 000 per connected household.

??It seems clear that an offer of a television including elements of so-called "lazy Interactivity" represents a sensible step forward. This provides:

??·additional information windows: for example interrupting long-winded live broadcasts such as Oscar award-ceremonies, coronations, slow sports like golf or baseball, concerts with news

??·'buy' buttons in advertising and events;

??·direct voting capabilities; and

??·interaction in live auctions.

??These offers can be linked to a picture-in-picture segmentation or windows within the television screen. For example, users in the UK of Sky's digital TV offer will be familiar with the ability to change camera angles and call up player statistics while watching sporting events.

??A big problem for TV-based Internet access today is still the lack of standardisation of the necessary set-top boxes. As consumers don't want to risk having to buy several of these boxes, many are playing a waiting game. Now PCs have become so cheap in the US that it will soon be possible, for under 400 dollars, to put a simple PC on the television set and to solve the rest of the problem with software.

??The future for television as a medium is firm but the future for many television broadcasters is uncertain. Cable-TV players in some countries have got used to a pay-TV model. The advent of broad-band technology, allowing TV to be watched on the Internet threatens all this—as it becomes possible to charge subscription fees on the Internet.

??Broadcast. com^[8], taken over by Yahoo^[9]in spring 1999, has shown what is possible on the web using streaming technology. Broadcast. com, amongst others, has acquired Internet rights for sports' broadcasts and is waiting for these to become accessible via TV sets at which point it will be in direct competition with traditional broadcasters.

??For e-tailers and e-shopping suppliers this means that, within the foreseeable future, they will be able to reach the whole television-watching community. They will, of course, have competition from television broadcasters like home-shopping channel, which is moving the opposite way into the Internet. Note that as they prepare to migrate to TV, Internet sites must be adapted to be TV-acceptable with larger fonts, more pictures and navigable without a keyboard!

??Notes

??[1] spellbound: 人们处在一种痴迷的状态，观看着，着迷的。形容词作状语表示状态。e．g．He went home tired and sad.(他回到家，疲惫不堪，心情沮丧。)

??[2] baby boom generation: 泛指出生率高的一代。

??[3] time-short and time-rich: 时间紧的人和时间宝贵的人。

??[4] Apple: Apple公司，美国的一家微型计算机公司，位于加利福尼亚的Cupertino,1976年4月1日由Steve Jobs和Steve Wozniak创建。

??[5] Silicon Valley: 硅谷，美国加利福尼亚州森尼维附近圣克拉拉山谷内的一个地区。

??[6] Moore's law: 摩尔定律。

??[7] Time-Warner:(美国)时代华纳服务网站。

??[8] Broadcast. com:. com域名，专用于商业的Internet域名。

??[9] Yahoo: Yahoo网点，一个著名的Internet信息检索网点，由斯坦福大学David Filo和Jerry Yang开发而成，它的URL地址为：http：//www. yahoo. com/。

??Choose the best answer for each of the following:

The Internet and TV

因特网与电视

  Many people are watching spellbound^[1]as the Internet grows exponentially. What they often do not realize is that the Internet is not only a fascinating new interaction medium, but that it will completely dominate our society.

  Previous generations knew books, newspapers, telephones and televisions. The first three were essential aids to life, two text-based, the third speech-based. Anyone who was denied access to them was disadvantaged in our society. The picture-based medium, television, helped to bring the world closer to home. But it condemned the viewer to passivity and has been more a hindrance than a help in aiding individuals to develop new skills and capabilities.

  The Internet will unite all the traditional media and push them further. Most significantly, this is the first time that pictures will be used interactively for information, communication and development of skills. Even today, everyone who uses the web is able to catch a glimpse of the potential of the medium in this direction.

  Our children will grow into a web generation. They won't log onto the Internet occasionally, but will be online all the time. Fortunately they will be significantly more active than the TV-dominated baby boom generation^[2]. Those who are denied access to the Internet completely or partially will be enormously disadvantaged. They will be lost in our digital society.

  Obviously access will not be as it is today: slow, unstructured, available only through the computer. We will have intelligent tools for tapping undreamt-of possibilities. We can glimpse the beginning of these developments in many places. Shopping over the Internet of the future will be the obvious thing to do, regardless of whether the goods are ultimately delivered or fetched in person. Both the time-short and time-rich^[3]will love using the web in this way.

  Regardless of whether you agree with our views, you should read on. It is important for every e-tailing and electronic-shopping strategy to understand in detail what dramatic changes the Internet will undergo in the next few years.

  

Anytime, Anywhere Access

  Today "'interface" devices for the electronic world fall into three categories: telephone, PC and television. The telephone and the television were network-orientated devices from the beginning. They had a specific use: speech-based one-to-one communication on the one hand and picture-and-sound-based broadcasts on the other. The PC was initially a stand- alone calculating machine which was gradually networked and became a communication unit. It has been quite a long evolution. Douglas Englebart, the often unacknowledged forefather of the modern PC, not only invented the mouse, but as long ago as 1964 in his Stanford Research Institute, was propagating networking in its primitive forms. His early efforts were precursors of what we now call "hyperlinks" on the Internet. Interestingly even Apple^[4]founder, Steve Jobs, who copied much from Englebart and marketed it, did not take this aspect of communication between PCs very seriously at first.

  With digitalization (still only partially achieved with the telephone and the television), the three categories, telephone, PC, and TV will merge. This does not mean that multifunctional devices will dominate the market place, although these are clearly possible. After all, a medium like the radio has not disappeared although the radio function has long been integrated into TV sets. For most of today' s radio listeners TV sets are inappropriate. Digitalization of all devices does mean, however, that new applications and functional extensions will be possible. Overall we see three far-reaching changes for Internet access and electronic shopping:

  ·the comeback of the television;

  ·an increase in mobile devices; and

  ·the growth of 'easy use' equipment.

  Surrounding these elements of tomorrow's consumer infrastructure are a number of burning questions, e. g. who will provide the operating system which allows them to function? And who will provide the Internet access to them? Fortunately as an e-tailer you can wait and see.

  

The comeback of television

  A debate has been going on for a long time about whether the PC or the television will win as a preferred method of access to the Internet.

  A few years ago, a Japanese delegation visiting Silicon Valley^[5]asked Regis McKenna: "Which will win—the TV set or the PC?". "The microwave oven" was his stunning reply. We love it, because it not only underlines the fruitlessness of the discussion, but emphasises that—thanks to Moore's law^[6]—we will see many more unconventional Internet access devices. We discuss these in more detail below.

  Still, television deserves some special attention. With digitalization, it is on a technological collision course with the PC and many people believe that this means that one device will have to go. A long and pointless discussion has begun about whether the greater functionality of the PC or the wider distribution, better graphics and greater ease of operation of the TV set will win through. Combination units are already on the market. So far they have not met with much success.

  The reason is simple, the "egg-laying wool-producing milk-providing pig" is impractical. In the foreseeable future there will be a device with a keyboard which primarily specialises in communicating and processing information and which will be compact to a degree or even portable—let's call this a PC. There will be another device that is big, though no longer clumsy looking, that specialises in high-resolution graphics and films—let's simply call this a television. This television can have an infrared keyboard connected to it but usually it will be controlled with its simpler remote-control unit. You will be able to interchange the two units to a certain degree, but the so-called 'look and feel' is clearly optimised to one type of application.

  The critical fact is. television is becoming suitable for the Internet. This trend cannot be stopped. Most new and some proven Internet content is strongly picture-based and therefore particularly suited to television. Accessing it will not require a keyboard just as videotext or programme guides do not. The ultimate breakthrough for TV as an Internet device will come with broadband connections. Interactive TV will embrace Internet content as an add-on to TV programmes.

  For a long time it has been thought that video on demand (i. e. downloading films for payment), will be interactive TV's "killer application", i.e. the decisive buying-incentive for interactive television. Now it is clear that many people think that they would like video on demand but hardly anyone would pay for such a service at today's prices. Thus the so- called "full service networks' (FSN), based on this (such as Time-Warner's^[7]notorious attempt in Orlando) have all failed so far. The good news was that Time-Warner's FSN worked; the bad news was that it cost the company about ＄12, 000 per connected household.

  It seems clear that an offer of a television including elements of so-called "lazy Interactivity" represents a sensible step forward. This provides:

  ·additional information windows: for example interrupting long-winded live broadcasts such as Oscar award-ceremonies, coronations, slow sports like golf or baseball, concerts with news

  ·'buy' buttons in advertising and events;

  ·direct voting capabilities; and

  ·interaction in live auctions.

  These offers can be linked to a picture-in-picture segmentation or windows within the television screen. For example, users in the UK of Sky's digital TV offer will be familiar with the ability to change camera angles and call up player statistics while watching sporting events.

  A big problem for TV-based Internet access today is still the lack of standardisation of the necessary set-top boxes. As consumers don't want to risk having to buy several of these boxes, many are playing a waiting game. Now PCs have become so cheap in the US that it will soon be possible, for under 400 dollars, to put a simple PC on the television set and to solve the rest of the problem with software.

  The future for television as a medium is firm but the future for many television broadcasters is uncertain. Cable-TV players in some countries have got used to a pay-TV model. The advent of broad-band technology, allowing TV to be watched on the Internet threatens all this—as it becomes possible to charge subscription fees on the Internet.

  Broadcast. com^[8], taken over by Yahoo^[9]in spring 1999, has shown what is possible on the web using streaming technology. Broadcast. com, amongst others, has acquired Internet rights for sports' broadcasts and is waiting for these to become accessible via TV sets at which point it will be in direct competition with traditional broadcasters.

  For e-tailers and e-shopping suppliers this means that, within the foreseeable future, they will be able to reach the whole television-watching community. They will, of course, have competition from television broadcasters like home-shopping channel, which is moving the opposite way into the Internet. Note that as they prepare to migrate to TV, Internet sites must be adapted to be TV-acceptable with larger fonts, more pictures and navigable without a keyboard!

  Notes

  [1] spellbound: 人们处在一种痴迷的状态，观看着，着迷的。形容词作状语表示状态。e．g．He went home tired and sad.(他回到家，疲惫不堪，心情沮丧。)

  [2] baby boom generation: 泛指出生率高的一代。

  [3] time-short and time-rich: 时间紧的人和时间宝贵的人。

  [4] Apple: Apple公司，美国的一家微型计算机公司，位于加利福尼亚的Cupertino,1976年4月1日由Steve Jobs和Steve Wozniak创建。

  [5] Silicon Valley: 硅谷，美国加利福尼亚州森尼维附近圣克拉拉山谷内的一个地区。

  [6] Moore's law: 摩尔定律。

  [7] Time-Warner:(美国)时代华纳服务网站。

  [8] Broadcast. com:. com域名，专用于商业的Internet域名。

  [9] Yahoo: Yahoo网点，一个著名的Internet信息检索网点，由斯坦福大学David Filo和Jerry Yang开发而成，它的URL地址为：http：//www. yahoo. com/。

  Choose the best answer for each of the following:

20世纪90年代以后，电子政务迅猛发展的主要原因有（ ）

A．政府转型的背景

B．因特网的发展

C．电子商务和大公司的驱动

D．全球化的竞争

E．领导人的政治意志

20世纪80年代，“网际互联协议”使得人们可以连接任意两台计算机，这样，一个巨大的网络——因特网——在全球蔓延开来。20世纪90年代，随着“超文本传输协议”的出现，人们可以链接任意两个文件，这样，一个庞大的图书馆兼大卖场般的万维网在因特网上迅速形成。到了今天，新的协议又出现了，它就是“网格协议”。网格协议使得人们几乎能够链接与计算机有关的其他任何东西：数据库、虚拟和可视化工具，甚至是计算机本身的计算能力。

美国阿贡国家实验室的伊恩·福斯特说：“人类正在迈向一个新的未来，计算机资源的实际位置已不再重要。”福斯特和南加州大学信息学院的卡尔·克塞曼是网格计算领域的先驱者，他们主张网格计算类似于电网，而且需要有一个协议来支持。这种协议是实现网格计算的基本条件，因为它能够保证异构系统工作起来像单一的系统那样协调，能够使家庭和公司的计算机有能力进入到网络中寻找和调用资源。他们与其他人一起开发了Globus Toolkit这种能在各种平台上运行的网格计算软件，并使之成为实际上的网格计算标准，也就是网格协议。

克塞曼说：“设想一下，如果你是一个应急小组的领导，正在处理一起重大有毒化学物泄漏事故，你可能想要了解事故的有关情况，如泄漏物中含有哪些化学物，预报的天气状况如何，它们对事故处理有什么影响，现在的交通状况怎样，它对疏散线路有什么影响……要在今天的因特网上找到这些问题的答案，是一件十分麻烦的事，因为登录步骤的繁琐和软件的不兼容随时可以使你陷入困境，而如果采用网格计算，问题的解决将变得易如反掌。网格协议不但为人们发现、访问和调用几乎所有的资源提供了标准的平台，而且也为安全和认证等要求提供了相应的解决方案。”

网格计算技术的最直接应用之一是网格计算机的研制和开发。目前，世界各地正在建造很多台网格计算机，它们都得到了许多工业巨头，如IBM公司、SUN公司和微软公司等的大力支持。事实上，所有这些计算机都采用了Globus Toolkit，拥有前所未有的计算能力，可广泛应用于遗传学、粒子物理学、地震工程学等领域。由美国国家科学基金会投资8800万美元建造的Tera Grid就是这样的一台网格计算机。它将在今年年底前建成，设计运算速度可达每秒2l万亿次浮点运算，建成后将成为当今地球上运算速度最快的计算机之一。

由于福斯特和克塞曼对网格计算的巨大贡献，他们关于网格计算协议和标准的工作开始于1995年，因而，加利福尼亚通信和信息技术学院院长拉里·斯马尔和其他一些科学家称1995年为网格计算运动的起始年。福斯特和克塞曼的工作使得网格计算变得现实可行。随着网格计算技术的进一步发展，人们将能随时随地把整个网络整合成一台功能异常强大的超级计算机，实现计算资源、存储资源、数据资源、信息资源和专家资源等诸多资源的全面共享。

下列有关“网格协议”的理解，不符合原文意思的一项是( )

A．网格协议实际上是一种网格计算标准

B．网格协议使人们能够链接虚拟和可视化工具等许多东西

C．网格协议能够确保异构系统工作协调

D．网格协议能提供标准平台，但与计算机本身的计算能力无关

A.美国国家科学基金会网络

B.美国国防部的阿帕计算机网

C.欧洲计算机网络

D.日本计算机网络

Internet History

??

因特网史

??Expanding on the freeway metaphor, with cars, there are various levels of knowledge; learning to drive is easy, and it is all you really need to know about cars. This is like learning to surf the Internet.?In the course of driving,?you learn about highways, shortcuts, and so on, and using the Web is very similar, that is, with practice, you will learn where and how to find things.

??Also, in driving, you can go another step and learn how an engine works and how to do routine maintenance and repairs, such as oil changes and tune-ups. On the Web, the equivalent is to learn how Web pages are put together, which you have already started to do.

??A still deeper level of involvement with cars is learning how to do complex repairs, or to design and build them. Not many people pursue cars to this stage. On the Web, a similar level of involvement is writing software, either building applets^[1]in a language such as Java^[2], or developing more general-purpose tools for others to use in navigating the Web. Again, only a limited number of people aspire to this level.

??Today, the Information Superhighway is in place, but for many people, the mysteries surrounding it involve where to go and how to travel. Like traveling a highway in a foreign country and being unable to read the road signs, navigating the Information Superhighway can be frustrating and time-consuming without the right knowledge and tools.

??Consider that there are many ways to travel sidewalks, roads, and freeways to get to where we want to go. We can take a bicycle, a bus, a car, or a pair of in-line skates. Similarly, there are many ways to use the Internet to send and retrieve information. These include, but are not limited to^[3]: e-mail, file transfer, remote login, and the Web. New methods of using the Internet will probably be conceived and developed in the near future, and existing methods will be improved.

??

Internet History

??The history of the Internet is best explained via a timeline. We have included events that were important and required innovation, as well as other interesting and related items. For each item mentioned on the timeline, we provide a brief synopsis. While the timeline begins in 1969, we present some general comments on the 1960s, for background. The history of the Internet is fascinating both for itself and as a case study of technological innovation.

??Essential to the early Internet concept was packet switching^[4], in which data to be transmitted was divided into small packets of information and labeled to identify the sender and recipient. The packets were sent over a network and then reassembled at their destination. If any packet did not arrive or was not intact, the original sender was requested to resend the packet. Prior to packet switching, the less efficient circuit switching method of data transmission was used. In the early 1960s, several papers on packet switching theory were written, laying the groundwork for computer networking as it exists today.

??In 1969, Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc., (BBN)^[5]designed a network called the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)^[6]for the United Sates Department of Defense. The military created ARPANET to enable researchers to share "super-computing" power. It was rumored that the military developed the ARPANET in response to the threat of a nuclear attack destroying the country's communication system.

??Initially, only four nodes (or hosts) comprised the ARPANET. They were located at the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of California at Santa Barbara, the University of Utah, and the Stanford Research Institute. The ARPANET later became known as the Internet.

??In the 1970s, the ARPANET was used primarily by the military, some of the larger companies, such as IBM, and universities (for e-mail). The general population was not yet connected to the system and very few people were on-line at work.

??The use of local area networks (LANs) became more prevalent during the 1970s. Also, the idea of an open architecture was promoted; that is, networks making up the ARPANET could have any design. In later years, this concept had a tremendous impact on the growth of the ARPANET.

??By 1972, the ARPANET was international, with nodes in Europe at the University College in London, England, and the Royal Radar Establishment in Norway. The number of nodes on the network was up to 23, and the trend would be for that number to double every year from then on. Ray Tomlinson, who worked at BBN, invented e-mail.

??In 1979 user Network (USENET)?was started by using UUCP^[7]to connect Duke University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Newsgroups emerged from this early development.

??In the 1980s, Transmission Control Protocol/lnternet Protocol (TCP/IP)^[8], a set of rules governing how networks making up the ARPANET communicate, was established. For the first time, the term "Internet" was being used to describe the ARPANET. Security became a concern, as viruses appeared and electronic break-ins occurred.

??The 1980s saw the Internet grow beyond being predominantly research oriented to including business applications and supporting a wide range of users. As the Internet became larger, the Domain Name System (DNS) was developed, to allow the network to expand more easily by assigning names to host computers in a distributed fashion.

??The Computer Science Network (CSNET) connected all university computer science departments in the United States. Computer science departments were relatively new, and only a limited number existed in 1980. CSNET joined the ARPANET in 1981. Two years later the United States Defense Communications Agency required that TCP/IP be used for all ARPANET hosts. Since TCP/IP was distributed at no charge, the Internet became what is called an open system. This allowed the Internet to grow quickly, as all connected computers were now "speaking the same language. " Central administration was no longer necessary to run the network.

??In 1985, the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET)^[9]was formed to connect the National Science Foundation's (NSF's) five super-computing centers. This allowed researchers to access the most powerful computers in the world, at a time when large, powerful, and expensive computers were a rarity and generally inaccessible.

??The virus called Internet Worm^[10](created by Robert Morris while he was a computer science graduate student at Cornell University) was released. It infected 10 percent of all Internet hosts. Also in this year, Internet Relay Chat(IRC)^[11]was written by Jarkko Oikarinen.

??NSF took over control of the ARPANET in 1989. This changeover went unnoticed by nearly all users. Also, the number of hosts on the Internet exceeded the 100,000 mark.

??During the 1990s, lots of commercial organizations started getting on-line. This stimulated the growth of the Internet like never before. URLs^[12]appeared on television advertisements and, for the first time, young children went on-line in significant numbers.

??Graphical browsing tools were developed, and the programming language HTML^[13]allowed users all over the world to publish on what was called the World Wide Web. Millions of people went on-line to work, shop, bank, and be entertained. The Internet played a much more significant role in society, as many non-technical users from all walks of life got involved with computers. Computer-literacy and Internet courses sprang up all over the country.

??Gopher^[14]was developed at the University of Minnesota, whose sports team's mascot is the Golden Gopher. Gopher allowed you to "go for" or fetch files on the Internet using a menu based system. Many gophers sprang up all over the country, and all types of information could be located on gopher servers. Gopher is still available and accessible through Web browsers, but its popularity has faded; for the most part, it is only of historical interest.

??In 1991, the World Wide Web (WWW) was created as a simple way to publish information and make it available on the Internet. The interesting nature of the Web caused it to spread, and it became available to the public in 1992. Those who first used the system were immediately impressed.

??Mosaic^[15], a graphical browser for the Web, was released by Marc Andreessen and several other graduate students at the University of Illinois, the location of one of NSF's super-computing centers. Sometimes you will see Mosaic referred to as NCSA^[16]Mosaic, where NCSA stands for the National Center for Supercomputing Applications. Mosaic was first released under X Windows and graphical UNIX^[17]. To paraphrase a common idiom, each person who used the system loved it and "told five friends," and Mosaic's use spread rapidly.

??The company called Netscape Communication, formed by Marc Andreessen and Jim Clark, released in 1994 Netscape Navigator, a Web browser that captured the imagination of everyone who used it. The number of users of this software grew at a phenomenal rate. Netseape made (and still makes) its money largely through advertising on its Web pages. And in the same year, Stanford graduate students David Filo and Jerry Yang developed their Internet search engine and directory called Yahoo, which is now world-famous. One year later, the Internet programming environment, Java, was released by Sun Microsystems, Inc. This language, originally called Oak, allowed programmers to develop Web pages that were more interactive.

??The software giant, Microsoft, in 1995, committed many of its resources to developing its browser, Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Internet applications. Some of the first courses about the Internet were given in the meanwhile. Course development has been difficult, because of the rapidly changing software. In 1998, Netscape Communications released the source code for its Web browser.

??Notes

??[1] applets: 应用程序片段，小应用程序，用Java语言编写的一种应用程序。

??[2] Java: Java语言。美国Sun公司的James Gosling于1990年编制的一种计算机语言，1995年首次公布，Java是在C++语言基础上发展起来，语法上与C++相似的一种面向对象的语言。

??[3] These include, but are not limited to: 这些包括，但不限于……

??[4] packet switching：(数据、信息)包交换法，(报文)分组交换技术(借助编址的报文分组选择路由并发送数据，以使一个信道只在包传送时才被占用的处理方法或技术)。

??[5] Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc.，(BBN)：BBN公司，美国马萨诸塞州的一个公司，早期维护ARPANET网，后来维护因特网的核心网关。

??[6] the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)：阿帕网，ARPA网(高级研究计划局的计算机网络名)。

??[7] UUCP: Unix到Unix的拷贝程序(UNIX to UNIX Copy)。UUCP是Usenet用于数据传输的主要通讯协议之一。

??[8] Transmission Control Protocol/lnternet Protocol (TCP/IP)：传输控制协议/网络协议。

??[9] the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET)：自然科学基金网。

??[10] Internet Worm：因特网虫(1988年美国康奈尔大学的一个学生写的字符串自复制开玩笑程序，一夜之间遍布整个因特网，导致大多数计算机停止运行)。

??[11] Internet Relay Chat(IRC)：因特网交谈服务系统(使用文本实时交谈，可多人参加)。

??[12] URLs (Uniform Resource Locator)：统一资源地址、统一资源定位器(程序)。

??[13] HTML(Hypertext Markup Language)：超文本链接标示语言。

??[14] Gopher：跑腿鼹鼠，是用户在因特网上的个人图书管理员，供用户查询搜索所需的系统资源。

??[15] Mosaic：1993年因特网上出现的第一个图形界面Web浏览器。

??[16] NCSA (National Center for Supercomputing Application)：国家超级计算应用中心。

??[17] Unix: 一种多用户的计算机操作系统。

??Choose the best answer:

阅读下面短文，回答文后问题。

20世纪80年代，“网际互联协议”使得人们可以连接任意两台计算机，这样，一个巨大的网络——因特网——在全球蔓延开来。20世纪90年代，随着“超文本传输协议”的出现，人们可以链接任意两个文件，这样，一个庞大的图书馆兼大卖场般的万维网在因特网上迅速形成。到了今天，新的协议又出现了，它就是“网格协议”。网格协议使得人们几乎能够链接与计算机有关的其他任何东西：数据库、虚拟和可视化工具，甚至是计算机本身的计算能力。

美国阿贡国家实验室的伊恩.福斯特说：“人类正在迈向一个新的未来，计算机资源的实际位置已不再重要。“福斯特和南加州大学信息学院的卡尔；克塞曼是网格计算领域的先驱者，他们主张网格计算类似于电网，而且需要有一个协议来支持。这种协议是实现网格计算的基本条件，因为它能够保证异构系统工作起来像单一的系统那样协调，能够使家庭和公司的计算机有能力进入到网络中寻找和调用资源而______。他们与其他人一起开发了Globus Toolkit这种能在各种平台上运行的网格计算软件，并使之成为实际上的网格计算标准，也就是网格协议。

克塞曼说：“设想一下，如果你是一个应急小组的领导，正在处理一起重大有毒化学物泄漏事故，你可能想要了解事故的有关情况，如泄漏物中含有哪些化学物，预报的天气状况如何，它们对事故处理有什么影响，现在的交通状况怎样，它对疏散线路有什么影响……要在今天的因特网上找到这些问题的答案，是一件十分麻烦的事，因为登录步骤的繁琐和软件的不兼容随时可以使你陷入困境，而如果采用网格计算，问题的解决将变得易如反掌。网格协议不但为人们发现、访问和调用几乎所有的资源提供了标准的平台，而且也为安全和认证等要求提供了相应的解决方案。”

网格计算技术的最直接应用之一是网格计算机的研制和开发。目前，世界各地正在建造很多台网格计算机，它们都得到了许多丌业巨头，如IBM公司、SUN公司和微软公司等的大力支持。事实上，所有这些计算机都采用了Globus Toolkit，拥有前所未有的计算能力，可广泛应用于遗传学、粒子物理学、地震工程学等领域。由美国国家科学基金会投资8800万美元建造的Tera Grid就是这样的一台网格计算机。它将在今年年底前建成，设计运算速度可达每秒21万亿次浮点运算，建成后将成为当今地球上运算速度最快的计算机之一。

由于福斯特和克塞曼对网格计算的巨大贡献，他们关于网格计算协议和标准的工作开始于1995年，因而，加利福尼亚通信和信息技术学院院长拉里•斯马尔和其他一些科学家称1995年为网格计算运动的起始年。福斯特和克塞曼的工作使得网格计算变得现实可行。随着网格计算技术的进一步发展，人们将能随时随地把整个网络整合成一台功能异常强大的超级计算机，实现计算资源、存储资源、数据资源、信息资源和专家资源等诸多资源的全面共享。

下列有关“网格协议”的理解，不符合原文意思的一项是：

A．网格协议实际上是一种网格计算标准。

B．网格协议使人们能够链接虚拟和可视化工具等许多东西。

C．网格协议能够确保异构系统工作协调。

D．网格协议能提供标准平台，但与计算机本身的计算能力无关。